
世界启示录——拉丁美洲债务危机

拉丁美洲经济危机是拉丁美洲众多国家的经济于1980年代(部分国家则始于1970年代)陷入危机,引发其国内的金融制度接近崩溃,甚至影响到国际的金融体系。
1982年8月,墨西哥政府宣布了一个震惊金融界的声明:「该国无法按期履行偿债义务。」此前,诸如牙买加、秘鲁、波兰和土耳其等国都曾陷入还债困难的危机,而墨西哥政府的此声明被视作是80年代发展中国家债务问题的开端。
一方面外债杠杆率过高,且短债规模快速上升;另一方面,进口替代战略失败导致拉美国家出口收入规模确定性上升。美联储货币政策紧缩,国际资本流向逆转和大宗商品价格下跌、拉美国家国际收支入不敷出,拉美债务违约便不可避免。
以1982年墨西哥宣布无力偿还外债为标志,拉美国家相继爆发严重的债务危机,这是拉丁美洲国家当时经济发展路径矛盾的总爆发。拉美国家普遍储蓄率偏低,为了维持较高的投资水平,只能举借外债保证资金供给。例如,1970年代墨西哥的经济年均增长率达到了6.5%,1978年至1981年各年的经济增长率分别为8.2%、9.2%、8.3%和8.1%。另一方面,墨西哥在这一期间债务总额增长近20倍,从1970年代初期的50亿美元激增至1982年末危机爆发前的876亿美元。债务规模的膨胀远远快于GDP增速,1982年墨西哥GDP不过1373亿美元,债务余额占GDP的63.8%。
拉美国家能够在1970年代不断提高本国的杠杆水平,主要受益于当时美联储宽松货币政策。在美国里根政府和英国撒切尔政府上台前,虽然经济学界已经对凯恩斯主义展开反思,但货币主义还尚未完全主导西方国家宏观经济政策。因此,除了石油危机期间,联邦基金利率基本都维持在较低的水平。1971年全年联邦目标基金利率维持在3.5%左右的水平,72年升至5.5%,第一次石油危机过后的1976和1977两年回落至4.75%左右的水平。总的来看,布雷顿森林体系解体后,全球金融一体化进程开启,1970年代欧美商业银行加大了对拉美地区的放贷规模。
第一次石油危机重创美国经济,1974年联邦基金目标利率一度超过10%。为了刺激经济,第一次石油危机结束后,联邦基金利率迅速回落至危机前的水平。这一时期美联储货币政策的变动尚未对拉美地区流动性造成重大影响。
1978年底伊朗伊斯兰革命爆发引发第二次石油危机,1979年保罗沃克尔上任美联储主席。第二次石油危机加剧了西方国家的滞涨问题,而沃克尔以强硬手段抑制通胀水平的上升。1981年6月,沃尔克将联邦基金利率从1979年的11.2%的平均水平提升至19%的历史新高,贷款利率也提升至21.5%。
1982年,联邦基金利率水平也维持在历史最高水平附近。
换言之,美联储的紧缩货币政策从1979年一直持续到1982年,紧缩力度、持续时间远远超过第一次石油危机,大量资金流出拉美地区。而拉美国家这一时期债务结构也发生较大变化,短期债务比例上升,加重其短期偿债压力。再者,美国收紧货币政策、美元走强意味着大宗商品价格的下跌。CRB期货价格指数自1980年12月起一路下滑至1982年9月末危机前夕,指数由334.7跌至227.9。大宗商品价格下跌意味着拉美国家出口收入的减少和国际收支的恶化。为了维持国际收支的平衡,拉美国家不得不以资本项目盈余来弥补经常项目的赤字。
以墨西哥为例,1975年资本项目流入规模仅为16.5亿美元,尽管1979年至1981年美联储连续加息,但资金流入墨西哥的规模不断上升。1979年流入规模为84.5亿美元,1980年资金流入规模已达到113.8亿美元,1981年更是上升至266亿美元。
但是在美国不断收紧货币政策背景下的资本流入是不可持续的。墨西哥宣布债务违约后,1982年资金流入规模迅速下降至99亿美元,1983年资金流入规模仅为13亿美元,1985年更是出现了资金净流出。
总之,拉美债务危机的爆发有其深刻的国内因素:
一方面外债杠杆率过高,而且短期债务规模在危机前快速上升;
另一方面,进口替代战略的失败导致拉美国家出口收入规模确定性上升。
一旦美联储货币政策由宽松转为紧缩,国际资本流动方向逆转和大宗商品价格下跌导致拉美国家国际收支入不敷出,债务违约便不可避免。因此,美联储紧缩货币政策成为压垮骆驼的最后一根稻草,是引爆债务危机的导火索。
债务危机路径:
对外出口额恶化,赤字增加—— 恶化的经济环境以及资本外逃—— 债务激增导致债务违约,要求债务展期——银行对拉丁美债的兴致消退,最终抛售其债券,作为结果,美债作为对冲的资产收益率接近16%

拉丁美洲的债务水平以及其对应的GDP增速

4阶段的拉美经济调整方案:
IMF紧缩政策- BAKER计划- BRADY计划- HIPC 债务减记(中间两个计划最有效)

Latin American Debt Crisis of the 1980s
1980年代的拉丁美洲债务危机
1982–1989
During the 1980s—a period often referred to as the “lost decade”—many Latin American countries were unable to service their foreign debt.
在20世纪80年代 - 一个通常被称为“失去的十年”的时期 - 许多拉丁美洲国家无法偿还其外债。
by Jocelyn Sims, Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago and Jessie Romero, Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond
During the Latin American debt crisis of the 1980s—a period often referred to as the “lost decade”—many Latin American countries became unable to service their foreign debt. The Federal Reserve and other international institutions responded to the crisis with a number of actions that ultimately helped alleviate the situation, albeit with some unintended consequences.
在20世纪80年代的拉丁美洲债务危机期间 - 通常被称为“失去的十年” - 许多拉丁美洲国家无法偿还其外债。 美联储和其他国际机构通过一系列行动应对危机,最终有助于缓解局势,尽管会产生一些意想不到的后果。
The Origins of the Debt Crisis
债务危机的起源
During the 1970s, two large oil price shocks created current account deficits in many Latin American countries. At the same time, these shocks created current account surpluses among oil-exporting countries. With the encouragement of the US government, large US money-center banks were willing intermediaries between the two groups, providing the exporting countries with a safe, liquid place for their funds and then lending those funds to Latin America (FDIC 1997).1
在20世纪70年代,两次大的石油价格冲击在许多拉美国家造成了经常账户赤字。 与此同时,这些冲击造成石油输出国的经常账户盈余。 在美国政府的鼓励下,大型美国货币中心银行愿意在两个集团之间建立中介机构,为出口国提供安全,流动的资金,然后将这些资金借给拉丁美洲(FDIC 1997).1
Latin American borrowing from US commercial banks and other creditors increased dramatically during the 1970s. At the end of 1970, total outstanding debt from all sources totaled only $29 billion, but by the end of 1978, that number had skyrocketed to $159 billion. By 1982, the debt level reached $327 billion (FDIC 1997).
20世纪70年代,拉丁美洲从美国商业银行和其他债权人那里借贷的数量急剧增加。 截至1970年底,所有来源的未偿还债务总额仅为290亿美元,但到1978年底,这一数字已飙升至1,590亿美元。 到1982年,债务水平达到了3270亿美元(FDIC 1997)。
The potential risk of the growing involvement of US banks in Latin American and other less-developed countries (LDC) debt didn’t go unnoticed. In 1977, during a speech at the Columbia University Graduate School of Business, then-Fed Chairman Arthur Burns criticized commercial banks for assuming excessive risk in their Third World lending (FDIC 1997). Still, by 1982, the nine largest US money-center banks held Latin American debt amounting to 176 percent of their capital; their total LDC debt was nearly 290 percent of capital (Sachs 1988).
美国银行越来越多地参与拉丁美洲和其他欠发达国家(LDC)债务的潜在风险并未被忽视。 1977年,在哥伦比亚大学商学院的演讲中,当时的美联储主席亚瑟·伯恩斯批评商业银行在第三世界贷款中承担过高的风险(FDIC 1997)。 尽管如此,截至1982年,美国九大货币中心银行持有的拉美债务占其资本总额的176%; 他们的最不发达国家债务总额接近资本的290%(Sachs 1988)。
The near-zero real rates of interest on short-term loans along with world economic expansion made this situation tenable in the early part of the 1970s. By late in the decade, however, the priority of the industrialized world was lowering inflation, which led to a tightening of monetary policy in the United States and Europe. Nominal interest rates rose globally, and in 1981 the world economy entered a recession. At the same time, commercial banks began to shorten re-payment periods and charge higher interest rates for loans. The Latin American countries soon found their debt burdens unsustainable (Devlin and Ffrench-Davis 1995).
短期贷款的实际利率几乎为零以及世界经济扩张使得这种情况在20世纪70年代早期成为可能。 然而,到了十年末,工业化国家的首要任务是降低通货膨胀率,从而导致美国和欧洲的货币政策收紧。 全球名义利率上升,1981年世界经济陷入衰退。 与此同时,商业银行开始缩短再付款期,并收取较高的贷款利率。 拉丁美洲国家很快发现他们的债务负担难以为继(Devlin和Ffrench-Davis 1995)。
The spark for the crisis occurred in August 1982, when Mexican Finance Minister Jesús Silva Herzog informed the Federal Reserve chairman, the US Treasury secretary, and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) managing director that Mexico would no longer be able to service its debt, which at that point totaled $80 billion. Other countries quickly followed suit. Ultimately, sixteen Latin American countries rescheduled their debts, as well as eleven LDCs in other parts of the world (FDIC 1997).
危机的火花发生在1982年8月,当时墨西哥财政部长JesúsSilvaHerzog告知美联储主席,美国财政部长和国际货币基金组织(IMF)常务董事,墨西哥将无法偿还其债务, 那时总计800亿美元。 其他国家也很快效仿。 最终,十六个拉丁美洲国家重新安排了债务,以及世界其他地区的十一个最不发达国家(FDIC 1997)。
In response, many banks stopped new overseas lending and tried to collect on and restructure existing loan portfolios. The abrupt cut-off in bank financing plunged many Latin American countries into deep recession and laid bare the shortcomings of previous economic policies, described by former Federal Reserve Governor Roger W. Ferguson, Jr. as based on “high domestic consumption, heavy borrowing from abroad, unsustainable currency levels, and excessive intervention by government into the economy” (Ferguson 1999).
作为回应,许多银行停止了新的海外贷款,并试图收集和重组现有的贷款组合。 银行融资的突然停产使许多拉美国家陷入深度衰退,并暴露了前联邦储备银行行长罗杰·W·弗格森(Roger W. Ferguson,Jr。)所描述的先前经济政策的缺点,其基础是“高国内消费,大量借贷 国外,不可持续的货币水平,以及政府对经济的过度干预“(Ferguson 1999)。
Working Toward a Resolution: IMF and Central Bank Involvement
致力于解决方案:国际货币基金组织和中央银行的参与
As transcripts from the July 1982 Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) meeting illustrate, committee members felt it was necessary to take action (FOMC 1982). In August, the Fed convened an emergency meeting of central bankers from around the world to provide a bridge loan to Mexico. Fed officials also encouraged US banks to participate in a program to reschedule Mexico’s loans (Aggarwal 2000).
正如1982年7月联邦公开市场委员会(FOMC)会议的成绩单所示,委员会成员认为有必要采取行动(FOMC 1982)。 8月,美联储召集了来自世界各地的央行行长紧急会议,向墨西哥提供过桥贷款。 美联储官员还鼓励美国银行参与重新安排墨西哥贷款的计划(Aggarwal 2000)。
As the crisis spread beyond Mexico, the United States took the lead in organizing an “international lender of last resort,” a cooperative rescue effort among commercial banks, central banks, and the IMF. Under the program, commercial banks agreed to restructure the countries’ debt, and the IMF and other official agencies lent the LDCs sufficient funds to pay the interest, but not principal, on their loans. In return, the LDCs agreed to undertake structural reforms of their economies and to eliminate budget deficits. The hope was that these reforms would enable the LDCs to increase exports and generate the trade surpluses and dollars necessary to pay down their external debt (Devlin and Ffrench-Davis 1995).
随着危机蔓延到墨西哥以外,美国率先组建了一个“国际最后贷款人”,这是商业银行,中央银行和国际货币基金组织之间的合作救助行动。 根据该计划,商业银行同意重组国家的债务,国际货币基金组织和其他官方机构向最不发达国家提供足够的资金来支付贷款利息,而不是本金。 作为回报,最不发达国家同意对其经济进行结构改革并消除预算赤字。 希望这些改革能够使最不发达国家增加出口并产生偿还外债所需的贸易顺差和美元(Devlin和Ffrench-Davis 1995)。
Although this program averted an immediate crisis, it allowed the problem to fester. Instead of eliminating subsidies to state-owned enterprises, many LDC countries instead cut spending on infrastructure, health, and education, and froze wages or laid off state employees. The result was high unemployment, steep declines in per capita income, and stagnant or negative growth—hence the term the “lost decade” (Carrasco 1999).
虽然这个计划避免了眼前的危机,但它让问题恶化了。 许多最不发达国家不是取消对国有企业的补贴,而是削减基础设施,健康和教育方面的支出,冻结工资或解雇国有雇员。 其结果是高失业率,人均收入急剧下降,以及停滞或负增长 - 因此称为“失去的十年”(Carrasco 1999)。
US banking regulators allowed lenders to delay recognizing the full extent of the losses on LDC lending in their loan loss provisions. This forbearance reflected a belief that had the losses been fully recognized, the banks would have been deemed insolvent and faced increased funding costs. After several years of negotiations with the debtor countries, however, it became clear that most of the loans would not be repaid, and banks began to establish loan loss provisions for their LDC debt. The first was Citibank, which in 1987 established a $3.3 billion loss provision, more than 30 percent of its total LDC exposure. Other banks quickly followed Citibank’s example (FDIC 1997).
美国银行业监管机构允许贷方推迟承认最不发达国家贷款损失的全部损失。 这种忍耐反映了一种信念,即损失得到了充分认可,银行将被视为无力偿债,并面临增加的融资成本。 然而,在与债务国进行了几年的谈判之后,很明显大多数贷款都无法偿还,银行开始为其最不发达国家债务设立贷款损失准备金。 第一个是花旗银行,它在1987年确立了33亿美元的损失准备金,超过其最不发达国家总面积的30%。 其他银行很快跟随花旗银行的例子(FDIC 1997)。
By 1989, it was also clear to the US government that the debtor nations could not repay their loans, at least not while also rekindling economic growth. Secretary of the Treasury Nicholas Brady thus proposed a plan that established permanent reductions in loan principal and existing debt-servicing obligations. Between 1989 and 1994, private lenders forgave $61 billion in loans, about one third of the total outstanding debt. In exchange, the eighteen countries that signed on to the Brady plan agreed to domestic economic reforms that would enable them to service their remaining debt (FDIC 1997). Still, it would be years before the scars of the 1980s began to fade.
到1989年,美国政府也明白债务国无法偿还贷款,至少在重新点燃经济增长的同时也是如此。 因此,财政部长尼古拉斯布拉迪提出了一项计划,该计划确定了贷款本金和现有偿债义务的永久性减少。 在1989年至1994年期间,私人贷款人放弃了610亿美元的贷款,约占未偿债务总额的三分之一。 作为交换,签署布拉迪计划的18个国家同意国内经济改革,使其能够偿还剩余的债务(FDIC 1997)。 尽管如此,20世纪80年代的伤疤开始消退还需要几年时间。
Lessons Learned 后车之鉴
Despite the many warning signs that the LDCs’ debt level was unsustainable and that US banks were overexposed to that debt, market participants did not seem to recognize the problem until it had already erupted. The result was a crisis that required a decade of negotiations and multiple attempts at debt rescheduling to resolve, at considerable cost to the citizens of Latin America and other LDC countries.
尽管有许多警告迹象表明最不发达国家的债务水平不可持续,而且美国银行过度倾向于债务,但市场参与者似乎并未认识到这个问题,直到它已经爆发。 其结果是一场危机,需要十年的谈判和债务重新安排的多次尝试才能解决,拉丁美洲和其他最不发达国家的公民付出相当大的代价。
In the United States, the chief concern was the soundness and solvency of the financial system. To that end, regulators weakened regulatory standards for large banks exposed to LDC debt to prevent them from becoming insolvent. On one hand, this regulatory forbearance was effective at forestalling a panic. On the other hand, forbearance allowed large banks to avoid the consequences of their prior lending decisions (albeit decisions that were to some extent officially encouraged in the mid-1970s). But allowing those institutions to delay the recognition of losses set a precedent that may have weakened market discipline and encouraged excess risk-taking in subsequent decades.
在美国,主要关注的是金融体系的稳健性和偿付能力。 为此,监管机构削弱了接触最不发达国家债务的大型银行的监管标准,以防止它们破产。 一方面,这种监管宽容有效地防止了恐慌。 另一方面,宽容允许大银行避免其先前贷款决定的后果(尽管在20世纪70年代中期在某种程度上正式鼓励了这些决定)。 但允许这些机构推迟承认损失开创了先例,可能削弱了市场纪律,并鼓励在随后的几十年中过度冒险。
格隆汇声明:文中观点均来自原作者,不代表格隆汇观点及立场。特别提醒,投资决策需建立在独立思考之上,本文内容仅供参考,不作为实际操作建议,交易风险自担。


